Table 1 Fixed effect models of the growth of all low-wage occupations (ISCO 5 + 9) and for service and shop (ISCO 5) and elementary (ISCO 9) occupations, respectively, in the EU 1995–2017. Coefficients and standard errors (within brackets) are reported. Significant at 10% (^a), 5% (^b) and 1% (^c)

REFMIG

1.286^c (0.457)

0.470 (0.405)

0.816^c (0.225)

1.345^c (0.456)

0.538 (0.403)

0.808^c (0.226)

12.858^c (2.443)

10.305^c (2.178)

2.553^b (1.234)

4.313 (3.198)

1.030 (2.819)

3.283^b (1.659)

EU25 # REFMIG

−0.946^a (0.509)

−1.077^b (0.450)

0.132 (0.252)

16.658^c (4.416)

16.996^c (3.892)

−0.338 (2.291)

INV # REFMIG

−0.450^c (0.095)

−0.382^c (0.085)

−0.068 (0.048)

−0.115 (0.126)

− 0.017 (0.111)

−0.098 (0.065)

EU25 # INV # REFMIG

−0.679^c (0.171)

−0.695^c (0.151)

0.016 (0.089)

INV # EU25

0.132 (0.085)

0.229^c (0.075)

−0.097^b (0.044)

EU25

8.784^c (1.883)

6.948^c (1.671)

1.836^b (0.928)

9.523^c (1.917)

7.790^c (1.695)

1.733^a (0.950)

12.611^c (1.847)

10.327^c (1.646)

2.283^b (0.933)

9.063^c (2.767)

4.565^a (2.439)

4.498^c (1.435)

INV

−0.228^c (0.045)

−0.227^c (0.040)

−0.001 (0.022)

−0.223^c (0.044)

−0.221^c (0.039)

−0.002 (0.022)

−0.057 (0.057)

−0.082 (0.051)

0.025 (0.029)

−0.097 (0.087)

−0.208^c (0.076)

0.111^b (0.045)

Intercept

17.478^c (1.850)

13.902^c (3.332)

3.575^a (1.850)

19.641^c (3.917)

16.366^c (3.462)

3.275^a (1.940)

24.268^c (2.670)

20.314^c (2.380)

3.954^c (1.349)

23.732^c (3.865)

21.071^c (3.407)

2.661 (2.005)

Institution

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Globalization

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Technology

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Controllers

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Year FE

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

R²

0.341

0.693

0.341

0.628

0.699

0.341

0.645

0.707

0.345

0.672

0.735

0.361

N

363

363

363

363

363

363

363

363

363

363

363

363