Fig. 1
From: Three sub-Saharan migration systems in times of policy restriction
Evolution of visa restrictiveness in European countries for nationals from African countries* (1973–2010). Source: DEMIG VISA database. Computation method: a yearly index is calculated by computing the percentage of African countries that need a travel visa to enter a destination country in Europe. The average value for all destination and origin countries within the region of interest for every year was subsequently calculated. * List of countries: Europe: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, German Democratic Republic, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Africa: countries from the African continent and Madagascar (not from other islands)